3D food printing for dysphagia: navigating safety, nutrition, and technological challenges

Dysphagia, or difficulty in swallowing, affects a significant proportion of the aging population and individuals with neurological or physiological impairments, necessitating the development of safe, nutritious, and appealing texture-modified foods. The International Dysphagia Diet Standardisation Initiative (IDDSI) provides a globally recognized framework to ensure consistent food texture and fluid thickness; however, delivering meals that are both compliant and sensory-acceptable remains a challenge.This narrative review explores current research on 3D food printing for dysphagia, encompassing nutrition, food science,engineering, and clinical practice. Particular attention is given to the practicality of printing a complete, safe, and nutritionally adequate meal using 3D printing. Key challenges include formulation variability, printability of IDDSI-compliant foods, equipment limitations, and practical issues in meal preparation and service. This review highlights the technological challenge of 3D food printing in dysphagia care, emphasizing that coordinated, multidisciplinary research is essential to translate this technology in to routine clinical use.