Delineating vanadium (V) ecological distribution, its toxicant potential, and effective remediation strategies from contaminated soils

Vanadium (V) is a multivalent redox-sensitive metal that is widely distributed in the environment. It enters the environment mainly through anthropogenic activities, such as industry, mining, fossil fuel burning, and fertilization, and imposes serious problems for plants, animals, and human health. The adverse effects of V on human health are determined by its movement through the environmental components (i.e., atmosphere, water, and soil). Exceeding the well-defined threshold level of V intake in animals (species-specific) and humans (V > 4500 µg per day) causes diseases such as vasoconstriction, congestion, focal hemorrhage in the lungs and adrenal cortex, congestion, fatty liver, and diarrhea, dehydration, cardiac disturbances, reduction in food intake, or weight loss. The threshold level of V toxicity varies from species to species. Low concentrations of V increased the root length, plant height, and biomass yield due to increased seed germination, chlorophyll, nutrient uptake, and nitrogen utilization. High concentrations of V inhibit protein synthesis, enzyme activities, and ion transport, resulting in stunted plant growth, shoot and root abnormalities, and even plant death. Various soil properties, including organic matter status, pH, calcium, phosphorus, aluminum, and iron (hydr) oxides, are the crucial determinants of V bioavailability and uptake by plants. Alteration in these properties could improve plant growth by inhibiting V uptake. Phytoremediation using microorganisms and organic amendments can be a feasible technique to remediate V-polluted soils. In this review, we concise an overview of V distribution in different environmental components and its impact on plants and human health. In addition, we also discussed the possible remedial approaches to eliminate as well as reduce the V concentration in soil. Graphical abstract: [Figure not available: see fulltext.]