Developmental plasticity to pond drying has carryover costs on metamorph performance

Increasing variable hydroperiods may leave ectotherms with complex life cycles more vulnerable to the impacts of environmental drying. While developmental plasticity may enable some species to escape drying ponds, this plasticity might result in trade-offs with performance and subsequent fitness in adults. Here, we used rice paddy frogs (Fejervarya limnocharis) to test how pond drying influences the developmental plasticity of tadpoles, and the resulting carryover effects on body size and jumping performance. We predicted that tadpoles under simulated drought conditions (2-0.25 cm depth) compared to low stable water level conditions (0.25 cm depth) would develop faster, and the resulting metamorphs would be smaller and exhibit lower jumping performance. We show that tadpoles in drying conditions had a faster developmental rate than tadpoles in stable low water level treatments. The size of metamorphs from the drying treatment was similar to the high-water treatments (2 cm depth), but maximum jumping distance of individuals from the drying condition was lower than that of the high-water treatment. These results indicate that drying conditions for F. limnocharis increase development rate without a reduction in size at metamorphosis, but with poorer mass-independent locomotor performance, which can potentially impact their survival. Environmental drying can challenge animals with complex life cycles. This study shows that tadpoles of rice paddy frogs develop faster in drying ponds without becoming smaller, but their jumping ability at metamorphosis is reduced. These changes may affect their survival, highlighting the potential impacts of environmental drying on early life development.