"Do I run away?" : proximity, stress and discomfort in human-drone interaction in real and virtual environments

Social drones are autonomous flying machines designed to operate in inhabited environments. Yet, little is known about how their proximity might impact people’s well-being. This knowledge is critical as drones are often perceived as potential threats due to their design (e.g., visible propellers, unpleasant noise) and capabilities (e.g., moving at high speed, surveillance). In parallel, Virtual Reality (VR) is a promising tool to study human–drone interactions. However, important questions remain as to whether VR is ecologically valid for exploring human–drone interactions. Here, we present a between-within subjects user study (N = 42) showing that participants’ stress significantly differs between different drone states and locations. They felt more comfortable when the drone retreated from their personal space. Discomfort and stress were strongly correlated with the perceived drone’s threat level. Similar findings were found across real and virtual environments. We demonstrate that drones’ behaviour and proximity can threaten peoples’ well-being and comfort, and propose evidence-based guidelines to mitigate these impacts.