Protein and peptide based nanotherapeutics for the management of Alzheimer’s disease: Current insights and future directions

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most chronic neurodegenerative disease. The pathological hallmark of AD includes the accumulation of amyloid-beta plaques (Aβ), oxidative stress as well as chronic inflammatory reactions. Current treatments, such as acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, N-methyl- D -aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonists, and recently approved monoclonal antibodies, offer symptomatic relief or slightly slow down progression. However, they too are constrained by high cost, side effects and limited activity. Proteins and peptides are emerging focus of attention as promising therapeutics, due to their higher selectivity, participation in many pathological pathways, and are lesser toxicity than other therapies in recent years. These biomolecules mediate their effect by decreasing amyloid aggregation, preventing tau hyperphosphorylation, regulating oxidative damage and repairing synapses. Various proteins and peptides such as SS31, LPfFFD-PEG, SEN1576, α sheet peptides, D-(PGKLVYA), RI-OR2-TAT, TFP5, SEN304, PP-Leu, Ac-Leu-Pro-Phe-Phe-Asp-NH2 (iAb5p), and Cyclo (17, 21)- (Lys17, Asp21) Aβ (1−28) have been used in the treatment of AD. Nonetheless, these peptides have a limited clinical translatability due to their vulnerability to enzymatic degradation, systemic circulation instability, low bioavailability, and limited penetration across the blood-brain barrier (BBB). To overcome these challenges, nanotechnology-based treatments have become a revolutionary solution. Both functionalized and non-functionalized protein and peptide-loaded nanoparticles provide protection against degradation, cross the BBB, and allow sustained and targeted delivery of neuronal tissues. The ligand-functionalized nanoparticle systems increase the accumulation of therapeutics in the brain as they cross the blood-brain barrier more efficiently. These are also able to protect the circulatory proteins and peptides, and eventually lead to improved therapeutic results in preclinical models. The present review highlights the therapeutic and delivery potential of protein- and peptide-based nanocarriers as dual therapeutic and delivery vectors with disease-modifying capability and precision targeting. Together, these advances have placed nanotechnology-based protein and peptide therapeutics for better management of AD.