The cytotoxicity of some phenanthroline-based antimicrobial copper(II) and ruthenium(II) complexes

The in vitro cytotoxic properties of antimicrobial copper(II) complexes with 3,4,7,8-tetramethyl-1,10-phenanthroline (TMP) or 4,7-dipyridyl-1,10-phenanthroline (DIP) ligands and ruthenium(II) complexes coordinated with TMP or 2,9-dimethyl-1,10-phenanthroline ligands were investigated. Both copper(II) complexes were found to have similar inhibitory concentrations (IC ₅₀ ~ 2–2.5 μM). Their cytotoxicity was found to be necrotic, associated with cytoplasmic vacuolisation, rounding, detachment and lack of apoptosis-associated DNA fragmentation, in comparison to the apoptotic effects of cisplatin which demonstrate adherent cell enlargement or detachment, membrane blebbing and condensation. Antimicrobial ruthenium(II) complexes demonstrated a lower renal cytotoxicity than copper(II) complexes or cisplatin (IC ₅₀ > 60 μM). [Cu(DIP)(dach)](ClO ₄) ₂ and [Cu(TMP)(dach)](ClO ₄) ₂ (where dach = 1,2-diaminocyclohexane) induced dihydroethidium-sensitive ROS and the cytotoxicity of both TMP and DIP coordinated copper(II) complexes was mitigated by catalase, highlighting a role of H ₂O ₂ generation in their mode of action. The cytotoxicity of either copper(II) complex was not affected by coincubation with organic cation transporter (OCT) inhibitors cimetidine or disopyramide, in contrast to cisplatin, suggesting a non-OCT dependent mode of uptake for the copper(II) complexes in human cells. Coincubation with copper sulfate reduced the cytotoxicity of [Cu(TMP)(dach)](ClO ₄) ₂ (3-6 ×). The TMP complex induced a greater degree of G2/M accumulation and micronuclei generation than the DIP complex, possibly attributable to its greater DNA binding affinity. These results highlight the potentially low genotoxicity of copper(II) complexes coordinated with TMP or DIP and polypyridyl ruthenium(II) complexes as potential antimicrobial agents.